The process that established a new view of the universe is normally termed the Scientific Revolution. Not everything associated with the "new" science was necessarily new, however. In the sixteenth and seventeenth century natural philosophers were often reexamining and rethinking theories and data from the Ancient World to the Late Medieval Period. The Scientific Revolution involved a reappropriation of older knowledge as new discoveries surfaced. The biggest change that the Scientific Revolution brought was to the social realm, which will reach an apex during the Age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century.
The term scientist would not emerge until the 1830s, so at this time thinkers were deemed natural philosophers. The Discovery of the New World, Invention of the Printing Press, Rivalry among Nation-States, the Reformation, and Renaissance Humanism were all factors leading up to the Scientific Revolution. The discovery of systems and knowledge can be most readily seen in the following areas: Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Biology.
Undoubtedly, the most significant contribution to the Scientific Revolution was made by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) who first processed the notion of the Heliocentric Universe, which completely shifted the standard and quite orderly cosmology of Ptolemy and Aristotle. While Copernicus' model was not completely accurate, due to the retention of the concentric epicycles, he still put forth the idea that way in which we conceive the universe was inaccurate. It would take the mathematical principles of Tycho Brahe and the rationale of Johannes Kepler to prove that Copernicus was indeed right about the sun-center model. Kepler was able to apply the mathematical data of Brahe to the theory of Copernicus and discovered that universe actually moved in an elliptical orbit.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) would further add to this universe shift by using a telescope to help chart the heavens and explain the heliocentric theory mathematically. For Galileo the universe could be conceived through laws and principles. In other words, the world was rational and not mysterious. Following this principle, Isaac Newton rounded out the Copernican Theory with his discovery of gravity and laws of motion. Newton was a great rational mathematician, but he also upheld the importance of empirical data and observation.
While the mysteriousness of the Middle Ages dissipated with the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, the thinkers began to process the world as a mechanical enterprise. Philosophers such as Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Rene Descartes (1596-1650) provided methods of thought to process information and data. Bacon belonged to a group known as the Empiricists, who followed the Inductive Method. Descartes, on the other hand, adhered to the Rationalist theory, and employed the deductive method.
As the Scientific Revolution began to uncover some of the greatest metaphysical puzzles of the past, it too cast a dark shadow over religion. While religion and religious institutions were still an important aspect to European Nation-States, skepticism seemed to streamline religion and remove structure. Movements such as the Deists sprung up at this time, which claimed to make faith more common, reasonable, and guiltless. In a response to reconcile faith and reason, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) wrote his seminal work, the Pensée. In it he argued that in regard to matters of religion only reasons of the heart could prevail. He wrote: "The heart has its reasons, of which reason knows nothing. We know this in countless ways." From this point, Pascal showed that reason was too weak to resolve the problems of human nature and destiny, and to that end, the only reasonable choice human beings should make is a belief in God. For to believe in God, one has an infinite amount gain vs. a finite amount of loss.
The term scientist would not emerge until the 1830s, so at this time thinkers were deemed natural philosophers. The Discovery of the New World, Invention of the Printing Press, Rivalry among Nation-States, the Reformation, and Renaissance Humanism were all factors leading up to the Scientific Revolution. The discovery of systems and knowledge can be most readily seen in the following areas: Astronomy, Mathematics, Physics, and Biology.
Undoubtedly, the most significant contribution to the Scientific Revolution was made by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) who first processed the notion of the Heliocentric Universe, which completely shifted the standard and quite orderly cosmology of Ptolemy and Aristotle. While Copernicus' model was not completely accurate, due to the retention of the concentric epicycles, he still put forth the idea that way in which we conceive the universe was inaccurate. It would take the mathematical principles of Tycho Brahe and the rationale of Johannes Kepler to prove that Copernicus was indeed right about the sun-center model. Kepler was able to apply the mathematical data of Brahe to the theory of Copernicus and discovered that universe actually moved in an elliptical orbit.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) would further add to this universe shift by using a telescope to help chart the heavens and explain the heliocentric theory mathematically. For Galileo the universe could be conceived through laws and principles. In other words, the world was rational and not mysterious. Following this principle, Isaac Newton rounded out the Copernican Theory with his discovery of gravity and laws of motion. Newton was a great rational mathematician, but he also upheld the importance of empirical data and observation.
While the mysteriousness of the Middle Ages dissipated with the discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, the thinkers began to process the world as a mechanical enterprise. Philosophers such as Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Rene Descartes (1596-1650) provided methods of thought to process information and data. Bacon belonged to a group known as the Empiricists, who followed the Inductive Method. Descartes, on the other hand, adhered to the Rationalist theory, and employed the deductive method.
As the Scientific Revolution began to uncover some of the greatest metaphysical puzzles of the past, it too cast a dark shadow over religion. While religion and religious institutions were still an important aspect to European Nation-States, skepticism seemed to streamline religion and remove structure. Movements such as the Deists sprung up at this time, which claimed to make faith more common, reasonable, and guiltless. In a response to reconcile faith and reason, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) wrote his seminal work, the Pensée. In it he argued that in regard to matters of religion only reasons of the heart could prevail. He wrote: "The heart has its reasons, of which reason knows nothing. We know this in countless ways." From this point, Pascal showed that reason was too weak to resolve the problems of human nature and destiny, and to that end, the only reasonable choice human beings should make is a belief in God. For to believe in God, one has an infinite amount gain vs. a finite amount of loss.
As stated above the developments made during Scientific Revolution affected society, which is clearly evident in Age of the Enlightenment during the eighteenth century. The Enlightenment is an era, which historians have argued for as well as against it for many years. Some scholars, like Ernst Cassier, look at it as a revolutionary movement, others, most notably Peter Gay, view it as a unified body with a common cannon of thinkers. Yet another way of looking at the Enlightenment is through the lens of a Marxist historian, such as Theodore Horkheimer and Max Adorno, who view this period as an important stage in the development of human spirit.
While it is difficult to determine which of these theories is correct, we can say that the Enlightenment was a movement, which dovetailed the Scientific Revolution and brought about significant change to the political and social areas in Europe. These new thinkers, dubbed philosophes, wrote extensively, meet locally, and sought to apply the rules of reason to question the ills of society and promote much needed reform. Men such as Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were concerned with the changes that the world recently witnessed in the Scientific Revolution and believed that through reform the world would progress to the next stage. According to Kant, "men work themselves gradually out of barbarity if only intentional articles are not made to hold them in it." This idea demonstrates the birth of the public sphere and public opinion, which will become an important aspect to Age of Revolutions that follows this movement.
Arguably the biggest area of reform among the philosophes was in regard to political thought. As we saw in the last lecture with the Hobbes and Locke debate, regarding the necessity of government, philosophes of the Enlightenment were concerned with which body of government was the best. In 1721, the Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) produced the Persian Letters, which satirized contemporary political institutions around Europe. The most famous of these stories was the Parable of the Troglodytes because it posed the question: "Is man happier by pleasure, and satisfaction of senses, or by the practice of virtue." According to Montesquieu, men are born virtuous and ought to be that way, but for the most part virtues are tethered to vices. This process can be clearly seen with the decline of the Troglodytes in the parable. The economic connection can also be seen in an early poem by Bernard de Mandeville entitled "The Fable of the Bees."
As Sharpers, Parasites, Pimps, Players,
Pick-Pockets, Coiners, Quacks, Sooth-Sayers, [50]
And all those, that, in Enmity
With down-right Working, cunningly
Convert to their own Use the Labour
Of their good-natur'd heedless Neighbour:
These were called Knaves; but, bar the Name, [55]
The grave Industrious were the Same.
All Trades and Places knew some Cheat,
No Calling was without Deceit.
Mandeville suggests that true causes of social welfare, social progress, riches and benefits is that these are all based on the human vices: People work out of greed, are polite out of self-interest and hypocrisy, keep the law from cowardice - and so on. To this end, Montesquieu believed we needed a more rational government to ensure people's virtue and freedom.
Coming from a different perspective, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that man was not originally unequal, but it was society which create this inequality. In order to free mankind from these social chains, Rousseau believed that society needed to reform and adopt a social contract, which he called the general will. According to Rousseau, the law should be the governance of the general will because through radical and direct democracy people would be more free to abide by the principle. This principle of the general will, however, is quite vague. On the one hand, Rousseau seems to be an advocate of democracy, while on the other hand, he can be called an apologist for dictatorship.
As you prepare for class next week, be able to show how these Enlightenment ideas were reflected in the values and reforms of the French Revolution.
While it is difficult to determine which of these theories is correct, we can say that the Enlightenment was a movement, which dovetailed the Scientific Revolution and brought about significant change to the political and social areas in Europe. These new thinkers, dubbed philosophes, wrote extensively, meet locally, and sought to apply the rules of reason to question the ills of society and promote much needed reform. Men such as Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, and David Hume were concerned with the changes that the world recently witnessed in the Scientific Revolution and believed that through reform the world would progress to the next stage. According to Kant, "men work themselves gradually out of barbarity if only intentional articles are not made to hold them in it." This idea demonstrates the birth of the public sphere and public opinion, which will become an important aspect to Age of Revolutions that follows this movement.
Arguably the biggest area of reform among the philosophes was in regard to political thought. As we saw in the last lecture with the Hobbes and Locke debate, regarding the necessity of government, philosophes of the Enlightenment were concerned with which body of government was the best. In 1721, the Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) produced the Persian Letters, which satirized contemporary political institutions around Europe. The most famous of these stories was the Parable of the Troglodytes because it posed the question: "Is man happier by pleasure, and satisfaction of senses, or by the practice of virtue." According to Montesquieu, men are born virtuous and ought to be that way, but for the most part virtues are tethered to vices. This process can be clearly seen with the decline of the Troglodytes in the parable. The economic connection can also be seen in an early poem by Bernard de Mandeville entitled "The Fable of the Bees."
As Sharpers, Parasites, Pimps, Players,
Pick-Pockets, Coiners, Quacks, Sooth-Sayers, [50]
And all those, that, in Enmity
With down-right Working, cunningly
Convert to their own Use the Labour
Of their good-natur'd heedless Neighbour:
These were called Knaves; but, bar the Name, [55]
The grave Industrious were the Same.
All Trades and Places knew some Cheat,
No Calling was without Deceit.
Mandeville suggests that true causes of social welfare, social progress, riches and benefits is that these are all based on the human vices: People work out of greed, are polite out of self-interest and hypocrisy, keep the law from cowardice - and so on. To this end, Montesquieu believed we needed a more rational government to ensure people's virtue and freedom.
Coming from a different perspective, Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that man was not originally unequal, but it was society which create this inequality. In order to free mankind from these social chains, Rousseau believed that society needed to reform and adopt a social contract, which he called the general will. According to Rousseau, the law should be the governance of the general will because through radical and direct democracy people would be more free to abide by the principle. This principle of the general will, however, is quite vague. On the one hand, Rousseau seems to be an advocate of democracy, while on the other hand, he can be called an apologist for dictatorship.
As you prepare for class next week, be able to show how these Enlightenment ideas were reflected in the values and reforms of the French Revolution.
world-civilization-week-9.ppt |