At the beginning of this class, I posed the question was Martin Luther a mad monk or a thoughtful theologian? The purpose of this question was not for one to form an opinion on Luther's message as either a supporter or dissenter, but rather to explore the importance of Luther's Stand against the Catholic Church. Whether we believe in what Luther preached or not is irrelevant, but understanding how Luther's message further helped develop the role of the individual in society is of paramount concern.
On the Eve of the Reformation, the Christian Church was in the midst of a serious crisis. As we witnessed in the discussion on the Late Middle Ages, society was hit by three major disturbances between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Black Plague (1347-1430), which wiped out nearly half the population in Europe, greatly affected people's worldview. In addition, the absenteeism witnessed in the Avignon Papacy (1305-1378) followed by the pluralism of the Great Schism (1378-1417) saw a rise in anticlericalism throughout Europe. On top of all these issues, the Renaissance Papacy showcased great opulence and decadence, which furthered the gap between Rome and and the rest of Christendom.
Another important development on the Eve of the Reformation was the import of Renaissance Humanism into Northern Europe. Although the Northern Humanists were steeped in the ideas of their Italian counterparts, they tended not throw away religious importance in favor of secular notions from the classical world. In fact, many of these Northern Humanists were men of the cloth, who wished to further study the bible and maintain a deeper understanding of their faith. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) for example, welded together united classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with Christian ideals of love and piety. The Brothers of a Common Life also nurtured a life of "modern devotion" to the layman in Northern Europe. Established by Gerard Groote in the mid-forteenth century, the Brothers of a Common Life fostered a sense of religious life outside formed ecclesiastical councils and apart from religious vows.
Another valuable invention during this epoch was Guttenberg's Printing Press in 1455. The Printing Press not only fueled the growth of Northern Humanism in Europe, but it also led to the success of the Protestant Revolt. The printing press made it easier for Western Society to read the Bible and the printed word, therefore spawning success for Martin Luther and the early Reformers. Consequently the literacy rate tripled by this time, which indicated further signs of the progress and growth of the individual in society. All of these issues and inventions would provide Martin Luther with a fertile field to plant his seed of a "priesthood of all believers."
On the Eve of the Reformation, the Christian Church was in the midst of a serious crisis. As we witnessed in the discussion on the Late Middle Ages, society was hit by three major disturbances between the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Black Plague (1347-1430), which wiped out nearly half the population in Europe, greatly affected people's worldview. In addition, the absenteeism witnessed in the Avignon Papacy (1305-1378) followed by the pluralism of the Great Schism (1378-1417) saw a rise in anticlericalism throughout Europe. On top of all these issues, the Renaissance Papacy showcased great opulence and decadence, which furthered the gap between Rome and and the rest of Christendom.
Another important development on the Eve of the Reformation was the import of Renaissance Humanism into Northern Europe. Although the Northern Humanists were steeped in the ideas of their Italian counterparts, they tended not throw away religious importance in favor of secular notions from the classical world. In fact, many of these Northern Humanists were men of the cloth, who wished to further study the bible and maintain a deeper understanding of their faith. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) for example, welded together united classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue with Christian ideals of love and piety. The Brothers of a Common Life also nurtured a life of "modern devotion" to the layman in Northern Europe. Established by Gerard Groote in the mid-forteenth century, the Brothers of a Common Life fostered a sense of religious life outside formed ecclesiastical councils and apart from religious vows.
Another valuable invention during this epoch was Guttenberg's Printing Press in 1455. The Printing Press not only fueled the growth of Northern Humanism in Europe, but it also led to the success of the Protestant Revolt. The printing press made it easier for Western Society to read the Bible and the printed word, therefore spawning success for Martin Luther and the early Reformers. Consequently the literacy rate tripled by this time, which indicated further signs of the progress and growth of the individual in society. All of these issues and inventions would provide Martin Luther with a fertile field to plant his seed of a "priesthood of all believers."
Early in his life, Martin Luther was educated by the Brothers of a Common Life, which gave him a lot of his humanistic training. From 1501-1505, he attended the University of Erfurt and study the law, as well as the works of Gabriel Biel and William of Ockham. The story of Luther's religious development is quite remarkable. In the July of 1505, as he was traveling to a friend's house, a thunderstorm crept up and the frightened Luther vowed that if God would spare his life, then he would enter the monastery. Sure enough, Luther survived the storm and on July 17, 1505 he entered the Order of Hermits of St. Augustine. Ordained a priest in 1507, Luther immediately began to struggle with concept of sin and God's righteousness. In 1510, he travelled to Rome in search for spiritual guidance, but instead he found corruption, greed, and worldliness all around him. As a result of his spiritual struggle, when he returned from Rome he was sent to Wittenberg to further his studies in Theology, and in 1512, he earned a Doctorate and began preaching his beliefs.
Luther's struggle with the concept of God's Righteousness was clearly noted in his various letters to his fellow brother monk George Splatain, as well as in many of his sermons. According to Medieval Theology, God required perfect righteousness in order to receive salvation. In Luther's eyes there was a disproportion between sinfulness and this concept of being righteous. He found particular comfort in the words of St. Paul's letters to Romans, who said "to believe is to stand before God ... the just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17). From this simple verse, did Luther formulate his theory of Sola Fide or "Faith Alone". In Luther's eyes, God offers salvation on a silver platter, and there should be nothing in the way between the believer and God's promise of salvation.
Although Luther's belief in Sola Fide was the impetus to his break with Rome, what really got his hackles up and severed his relationship with the Church was the issue over Indulgences. Indulgences were first used to sway young men into becoming crusaders during the 11th century. However, by the fourteenth century the Church recognized the real commodity in these statements of forgiveness. By the fifteenth century, the process of granting an Indulgence reached a whole new platform when Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) issued that people could even buy an indulgence for a love one who was already dead and in Purgatory.
By 1517, Luther reached a boiling point when a popular Dominican Friar, John Tetzel visited Wittenberg promising the locals forgiveness from sins with a purchase of an Indulgence. Luther castigated Tetzel and a few weeks later, on October 31, 1517 he posted the 95 Theses on the door of the Church. Luther's main argument against Indulgences was that it destroyed the relationship between the human being and God. Moreover, it diminished one's faith and chalked it up to a simple economic transaction: "It is certain that when money clicks in the money chest, greed and avarice can be incurred but when the church intercedes, the result is in the hands of God alone."
Following the publication of his 95 Theses, Luther engaged in a public debate on these issues in Leipzig, where John Eck, a prominent theologian challenged him. Eck called Luther a Hussite, while Luther claimed that Hus had been unjustly condemned at the Council of Constance in 1415. After this debate Luther spent time between 1519-1520 writing three of his most important political tracts: a) In his Address to the Christian Nobility he urged that secular government had the right to reform the Church. b) In the pamphlet On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther attacked other teachings of the Church such as the sacraments. c) Finally, in Liberty of a Christian he hit on what would become the basic elements of the Lutheran belief: Grace is the sole gift of God, therefore, one is saved by faith alone, and the Bible is the sole source of this faith.
In response to these works, Pope Leo X finally decided that he had to act. He issued a papal bull, which demanded that Luther recant the ideas found in his writings or be burnt as a heretic. In a highly symbolic gesture Luther burned the bull to show that he no longer accepted papal authority. In turn the pope excommunicated Luther on January 3, 1521. Subsequently, due to the death of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian I in 1519 and the election of his nephew, Charles V (1519-1556) Luther received some invaluable fortune. Charles V was too occupied fighting wars against the Valois' in France and the Turks in the East. Moreover, Luther found support in the local German magistrates who were tired of sending treasures and money to Rome. One particular magistrate was Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony, who shielded Luther from criticism and hid him for protection when the Church threaten his life.
Luther's struggle with the concept of God's Righteousness was clearly noted in his various letters to his fellow brother monk George Splatain, as well as in many of his sermons. According to Medieval Theology, God required perfect righteousness in order to receive salvation. In Luther's eyes there was a disproportion between sinfulness and this concept of being righteous. He found particular comfort in the words of St. Paul's letters to Romans, who said "to believe is to stand before God ... the just shall live by faith" (Romans 1:17). From this simple verse, did Luther formulate his theory of Sola Fide or "Faith Alone". In Luther's eyes, God offers salvation on a silver platter, and there should be nothing in the way between the believer and God's promise of salvation.
Although Luther's belief in Sola Fide was the impetus to his break with Rome, what really got his hackles up and severed his relationship with the Church was the issue over Indulgences. Indulgences were first used to sway young men into becoming crusaders during the 11th century. However, by the fourteenth century the Church recognized the real commodity in these statements of forgiveness. By the fifteenth century, the process of granting an Indulgence reached a whole new platform when Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) issued that people could even buy an indulgence for a love one who was already dead and in Purgatory.
By 1517, Luther reached a boiling point when a popular Dominican Friar, John Tetzel visited Wittenberg promising the locals forgiveness from sins with a purchase of an Indulgence. Luther castigated Tetzel and a few weeks later, on October 31, 1517 he posted the 95 Theses on the door of the Church. Luther's main argument against Indulgences was that it destroyed the relationship between the human being and God. Moreover, it diminished one's faith and chalked it up to a simple economic transaction: "It is certain that when money clicks in the money chest, greed and avarice can be incurred but when the church intercedes, the result is in the hands of God alone."
Following the publication of his 95 Theses, Luther engaged in a public debate on these issues in Leipzig, where John Eck, a prominent theologian challenged him. Eck called Luther a Hussite, while Luther claimed that Hus had been unjustly condemned at the Council of Constance in 1415. After this debate Luther spent time between 1519-1520 writing three of his most important political tracts: a) In his Address to the Christian Nobility he urged that secular government had the right to reform the Church. b) In the pamphlet On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther attacked other teachings of the Church such as the sacraments. c) Finally, in Liberty of a Christian he hit on what would become the basic elements of the Lutheran belief: Grace is the sole gift of God, therefore, one is saved by faith alone, and the Bible is the sole source of this faith.
In response to these works, Pope Leo X finally decided that he had to act. He issued a papal bull, which demanded that Luther recant the ideas found in his writings or be burnt as a heretic. In a highly symbolic gesture Luther burned the bull to show that he no longer accepted papal authority. In turn the pope excommunicated Luther on January 3, 1521. Subsequently, due to the death of the Holy Roman Empire Maximilian I in 1519 and the election of his nephew, Charles V (1519-1556) Luther received some invaluable fortune. Charles V was too occupied fighting wars against the Valois' in France and the Turks in the East. Moreover, Luther found support in the local German magistrates who were tired of sending treasures and money to Rome. One particular magistrate was Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony, who shielded Luther from criticism and hid him for protection when the Church threaten his life.
In light of Luther's success in Germany, several other reformers sprung up during this time with similar beliefs. Most of these groups were dubbed the "Radical Reformers" due to their controversial beliefs against the Church. One of the most famous of these Radical Reformers was the Swiss Theologian Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). Zwingli was similar to Luther but had some important differences. To begin, he was a strict sacramentarian in that he denied all the sacraments. To him the Last Supper was a memorial of Christ's death and did not entail, as it did for Luther, the actual presence of Christ. Zwingli was also a Swiss patriot in ways that Luther could not be called a German patriot. Zwingli was far more concerned with this world and called for social reform. In fact he died leading the troops of Zurich against the Swiss Catholic cantons in the Battle of Kappel 1531.
What Zwingli did accomplish, however, was the drive for the Radical Reformation which followed his death. After his valorous attempt to reform the Swiss Church, groups such as the Anti-trinitarians, as well as the Anabaptists arose throughout the Holy Roman Empire urging folks to read the bible and deny the teachings of the Roman Church. Next week look for these connections as the Reformation continues to spread with the teachings of John Calvin. Also pay attention to the political importance of the Reformation and why the English would break the mold of these early Reformers in King Henry VIII's stance against the Church. Finally, be able to explain the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation and how it was successful in returning many of the Christian sheep to the herd.
What Zwingli did accomplish, however, was the drive for the Radical Reformation which followed his death. After his valorous attempt to reform the Swiss Church, groups such as the Anti-trinitarians, as well as the Anabaptists arose throughout the Holy Roman Empire urging folks to read the bible and deny the teachings of the Roman Church. Next week look for these connections as the Reformation continues to spread with the teachings of John Calvin. Also pay attention to the political importance of the Reformation and why the English would break the mold of these early Reformers in King Henry VIII's stance against the Church. Finally, be able to explain the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation and how it was successful in returning many of the Christian sheep to the herd.
world-civilization-week-5-6.ppt |
luthers_break_with_rome.pdf |
the_problem_of_martin_luther_.pdf |