Following the Reign of Terror, France established a purge known as the Thermidorian Reaction, named so because it was implemented on the 8 Thermidor (July 26, 1789). Following the removal of suspicious sans-culottes from office, the French National Assembly decided to re-write the constitution which consisted of a bicameral legislature and executive council of five men who possessed the title of director. This new directory gave a lot of power to the military since it relied on its protection.
One extremely industrious man, Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821, who had rose through the ranks of the military ascended to power in late 1790s. Early during his career, Napoleon had defeated the Austrians and helped to establish many sister republics across Europe. He was quite successful and extremely able as a commander. In 1799, under the direction of the Abbe Sieyes, Napoleon staged a coup d'etat to overturn the vacillating power of the Directory. Within a year, Napoleon staged a plebiscite and declared himself the First Consul of the State.
Napoleon then began his brilliant career as a statesman by first weeding out all his competition and then bringing peace to Europe. From 1801-1804, Napoleon grew in popularity and with his competition now limited, he declared the First French Empire on December 2, 1804. Napoleon created a new type of aristocracy that was based on merit rather than privilege and by 1805, he revisited the war effort and began to expand his Empire.
On land, Napoleon's Army was remarkable, between 1805-1807 he destroyed the Austrians in the Battle of Austerlitz as well as the Prussian during the Battle of Jena. However, Napoleon was no match for the naval strength of Britain as was evident in the Battle of Trafalgar that prohibited Napoleon's efforts from ever invading Great Britain. To that end, Napoleon waged an economic war by setting up a blockade of British goods on the Continent. Additionally, Napoleon negotiated the Treaty of Tilsit which made Russia an ally of France.
For the most part, Napoleon's Empire was a success from 1807-1810. He met resistance in areas like Spain and Prussian, but was able to put down revolts and maintain order. One positive thing that Napoleon did was establish the Napoleonic Code, which gave everyone citizenship. In addition, everywhere he conquered he abolished serfdom and secured social positions. In this way, he was very much protecting the rights of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity that were established during French Revolution. Although the method and means in which Napoleon ruled was a lot like a monarch in the Age of Absolutism, he still seemed to modernize his Empire through various reforms.
That notwithstanding, Napoleon began his descent from Empire during the summer of 1810 when he antagonized a war with Russia. Napoleon claimed that Tsar Alexander I broke the Treaty of Tilsit, which gave him the license to march into Russia with his Grand Army. The Russians who were outnumbered held on through several battles by employing a scratch and burn tactic. Napoleon who was a self-claimed "upstart soldier" refused to retreat despite the cold weather and unfamiliar Russian terrain. By 1812, Napoleon's army of 600,000 men had been reduced to 150,000. Although the French technically won the battles, they lost the war and the effort.
Napoleon and his men retreated and a coalition formed to end his rule. The leader of this group was an Austrian Prince Clemens Von Metternich who met with Britain, Russia, and Prussia to start the Battle of Nations. In March 1814, Napoleon with less than a quarter of troops remaining abdicated and was exiled to the tiny island of Elba. However, Napoleon would return one year later on March 15, 1815 and take back control. For the next Hundred Days, Napoleon ruled his Empire once again. He finally met his end at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. This time Napoleon was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, where he would stay until his death in 1821.
On the surface what we see in the French Revolution and the Age of Napoleon is palpable change to society that was first put forth during the Age of Enlightenment. The issues of liberty and equality were the central point of the revolutionary fervor that exploded in the final decade of the eighteenth century. Under the surface, however, the meaning of the French Revolution has much longer roots. The legacy which was built during the French Revolution and Napoleon was that of Ideology. While Europeans, especially the French seemed to embrace the change of modern society, following the collapse of Napoleon, France returned to a Bourbon Monarch (Louis XVIII) and the brother to the late Louis XVI. In this regard, one may assume that the French were simply content with a strong leader like Napoleon or Louis XVIII, and perhaps only wanted change in 1789 because of the economic and social issues. Other may argue that goals of the first wave of the French Revolution became convoluted during the process of change. Yet another way of looking at this issue is to say that people intrinsically are tethered to routine and afraid of change, at least the radical type of change, which was witnessed during this tumultuous time period. One way or another, it was the concept of change that began the French Revolution, and more importantly this idea will continue to inspire the reactionary politics through the first half of the nineteenth century.
One extremely industrious man, Napoleon Bonaparte 1769-1821, who had rose through the ranks of the military ascended to power in late 1790s. Early during his career, Napoleon had defeated the Austrians and helped to establish many sister republics across Europe. He was quite successful and extremely able as a commander. In 1799, under the direction of the Abbe Sieyes, Napoleon staged a coup d'etat to overturn the vacillating power of the Directory. Within a year, Napoleon staged a plebiscite and declared himself the First Consul of the State.
Napoleon then began his brilliant career as a statesman by first weeding out all his competition and then bringing peace to Europe. From 1801-1804, Napoleon grew in popularity and with his competition now limited, he declared the First French Empire on December 2, 1804. Napoleon created a new type of aristocracy that was based on merit rather than privilege and by 1805, he revisited the war effort and began to expand his Empire.
On land, Napoleon's Army was remarkable, between 1805-1807 he destroyed the Austrians in the Battle of Austerlitz as well as the Prussian during the Battle of Jena. However, Napoleon was no match for the naval strength of Britain as was evident in the Battle of Trafalgar that prohibited Napoleon's efforts from ever invading Great Britain. To that end, Napoleon waged an economic war by setting up a blockade of British goods on the Continent. Additionally, Napoleon negotiated the Treaty of Tilsit which made Russia an ally of France.
For the most part, Napoleon's Empire was a success from 1807-1810. He met resistance in areas like Spain and Prussian, but was able to put down revolts and maintain order. One positive thing that Napoleon did was establish the Napoleonic Code, which gave everyone citizenship. In addition, everywhere he conquered he abolished serfdom and secured social positions. In this way, he was very much protecting the rights of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity that were established during French Revolution. Although the method and means in which Napoleon ruled was a lot like a monarch in the Age of Absolutism, he still seemed to modernize his Empire through various reforms.
That notwithstanding, Napoleon began his descent from Empire during the summer of 1810 when he antagonized a war with Russia. Napoleon claimed that Tsar Alexander I broke the Treaty of Tilsit, which gave him the license to march into Russia with his Grand Army. The Russians who were outnumbered held on through several battles by employing a scratch and burn tactic. Napoleon who was a self-claimed "upstart soldier" refused to retreat despite the cold weather and unfamiliar Russian terrain. By 1812, Napoleon's army of 600,000 men had been reduced to 150,000. Although the French technically won the battles, they lost the war and the effort.
Napoleon and his men retreated and a coalition formed to end his rule. The leader of this group was an Austrian Prince Clemens Von Metternich who met with Britain, Russia, and Prussia to start the Battle of Nations. In March 1814, Napoleon with less than a quarter of troops remaining abdicated and was exiled to the tiny island of Elba. However, Napoleon would return one year later on March 15, 1815 and take back control. For the next Hundred Days, Napoleon ruled his Empire once again. He finally met his end at the Battle of Waterloo on June 18, 1815. This time Napoleon was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, where he would stay until his death in 1821.
On the surface what we see in the French Revolution and the Age of Napoleon is palpable change to society that was first put forth during the Age of Enlightenment. The issues of liberty and equality were the central point of the revolutionary fervor that exploded in the final decade of the eighteenth century. Under the surface, however, the meaning of the French Revolution has much longer roots. The legacy which was built during the French Revolution and Napoleon was that of Ideology. While Europeans, especially the French seemed to embrace the change of modern society, following the collapse of Napoleon, France returned to a Bourbon Monarch (Louis XVIII) and the brother to the late Louis XVI. In this regard, one may assume that the French were simply content with a strong leader like Napoleon or Louis XVIII, and perhaps only wanted change in 1789 because of the economic and social issues. Other may argue that goals of the first wave of the French Revolution became convoluted during the process of change. Yet another way of looking at this issue is to say that people intrinsically are tethered to routine and afraid of change, at least the radical type of change, which was witnessed during this tumultuous time period. One way or another, it was the concept of change that began the French Revolution, and more importantly this idea will continue to inspire the reactionary politics through the first half of the nineteenth century.
Following the collapse of Napoleon in 1815, the Holy Alliance of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain met at the Congress of Vienna and formed the "Concert of Europe" which was the basis of the congress system that form in Europe during the first half of the nineteenth century. The Toscanini of this orchestra was the Conservative Austrian prince Clemens Von Metternich. Metternich's idea was to create a mutual consolation of politics. A system that gave power to legitimate monarchies and landed aristocracies in order to assure that peace was maintained throughout Europe. In other words, because of the violence and chaos that the French Revolution caused, as well as the aftermath of Napoleon's Empire, Metternich wished to limit constitutions and control the masses. While the Congress System was able to maintain control throughout many of the insurrections that arose during the first half of the nineteenth century, criticism and reaction to conservative tenets were still present.
As a reaction to the change witnessed during the early nineteenth century, Europe saw the rise of several ideologies. These systems of belief are seen in all aspects of European Society. Cultural, political, as well as economic ideologies surface during reign of Metternich's Conservative Order. A clear understanding of these ideologies will help to understand the direction of mass politics in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Liberalism is the first major ideology to politically counter the Conservatism of the Congress System. Liberalism was a product of the Enlightenment. Liberals were educated members of the bourgeoise and believed in constitutions and representative government that protected human rights. These thinkers were not democrats and generally did not support the masses. Change might be appealing, but the liberals preferred that change was not radical and should come through reform and legislation. Following the Enlightenment thought, the liberals believed in human improvement and progress. They trusted science and education, and that which was modern and enlightened.
As a reaction to the change witnessed during the early nineteenth century, Europe saw the rise of several ideologies. These systems of belief are seen in all aspects of European Society. Cultural, political, as well as economic ideologies surface during reign of Metternich's Conservative Order. A clear understanding of these ideologies will help to understand the direction of mass politics in the second half of the nineteenth century.
Liberalism is the first major ideology to politically counter the Conservatism of the Congress System. Liberalism was a product of the Enlightenment. Liberals were educated members of the bourgeoise and believed in constitutions and representative government that protected human rights. These thinkers were not democrats and generally did not support the masses. Change might be appealing, but the liberals preferred that change was not radical and should come through reform and legislation. Following the Enlightenment thought, the liberals believed in human improvement and progress. They trusted science and education, and that which was modern and enlightened.
Another important ideology which arose in the wake of the Congress of Vienna was Nationalism. Nationalism was a concept that emerge during the last phase of the French Revolution and into Napoleon's establishment of the first French Empire. Deriving from Enlightenment ideals, the French Revolution promulgated the concept of a nation though the belief in Liberty, Equality, and Brotherhood. Napoleon furthered these ideals when he abolished the chains of serfdom and the Old Regime and created the Napoleonic Code. As a result, several nationalist groups sprung up in the 1820s across Europe. Most notably were the Italian and German Nationalists because these were two areas that were not unified. The concept of creating an Italy or a Germany was definitely present at this time. An example of the nationalistic fervor can been seen in the Karl Sand incident of 1819, who provided the name for the famous "Carlsbad Decrees." Karl Sand was a German Nationalist and a member of a popular student organization. Sand heard of the entrance of August Von Kotzbue, a famous Conservative playwright, to his campus. Subsequently, Sand murdered Kotzbue claiming him to be a traitor to the fatherland. A year later, Sand was executed and the Carlsbad Decrees were born. The Carlsbad decrees were a conservative measure to maintain peace and order, but ultimately it shunned the workers and the students which created tension among the social groups.
For next week's class pay attention to how the issues discussed in this week's lecture continued to effect European politics in the nineteenth century. Moreover, be able to show how this all reach a head in that fateful year of 1848. Be sure to understand the outcome of the various revolutions of 1848 and how these outcomes are connected to the notion of history repeating itself. In addition look for connections in Marx's Communist Manifesto, as well as Gustave Flabert's delectable story A Sentimental Education.
For next week's class pay attention to how the issues discussed in this week's lecture continued to effect European politics in the nineteenth century. Moreover, be able to show how this all reach a head in that fateful year of 1848. Be sure to understand the outcome of the various revolutions of 1848 and how these outcomes are connected to the notion of history repeating itself. In addition look for connections in Marx's Communist Manifesto, as well as Gustave Flabert's delectable story A Sentimental Education.
world-civilization-week-11-12.ppt |