The Religious Conflict that dominated the first half of the sixteenth century was mostly confined to central Europe. These issues were primarily a struggle by Lutherans to secure rights and freedoms from Catholics, and by 1555 these petitions were acknowledged. As we discussed in last week's class, before Charles V died, he had successful negotiated the Peace of Augsburg (1555) which brought nominal peace between the Catholics and Lutherans, by legalizing Lutheranism in the Holy Roman Empire under the principle of "cuius regio, eius religion" (Whose Realm, His Religion). Moreover, Charles V divided up his vast Empire between his son Philip II, who would inherit Spain and the Netherlands, and his brother Ferdinand I, who took over the Holy Roman Empire. This division would prove to be an important development in the Age of Religious Wars 1560-1648. Following Charles V's death in 1556 the wars of religion were renewed, but this time shifted from central Europe to most of Western Europe (France, Netherlands, England, and Scotland) and became primarily a struggle of the Calvinists seeking recognition. An in-depth look at these Wars of Religion will show the shift from religious struggle to political resistance. It is this political strife that bares witness to the birth of modern individualism.
By 1550, Calvinism had become the dominate Protestant Religion in Europe, and as a result political struggle ensued as Calvinist sects grew in number. The first series of Religious Wars arose in France following the death of Henry II (1547-1559). The long standing wars between the Habsburg and Valois came to a close with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, which came about with the marriage between Henry II's daughter Elizabeth and Philip II of Spain. To celebrate the marriage, a tournament was held, in which Henry II accidentally was lanced by a javelin, leaving behind three young sons a Medici widow to rule the kingdom. Catherine Medici faced two strands of insurgent nobility: the extreme Catholic League led by the Guise family, and two strong Calvinst-Huguenot families--the Montmorency-Chatillon and Bourbons.
One by one, the Valois sons (Francis II: 1559-1560, Charles IX: 1560-1574, and Henry III: 1574-1589) took the throne and died. In an attempt to reconcile the conflict, the king's sister, Margaret was married to Henry of Navarre, but on the night of the wedding, August 24, 1572, several thousand Protestants were murdered in Paris and the countryside--the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which stimulated dissension. In 1574, when the last Valois son, Henry III became king the Religious Wars in France reached a head. At this time, the Duke of Guise, Henry controlled the Catholic League in Europe and was graciously supported by Philip II of Spain. By 1580, Henry III with the threat of Spain interfering in France, Henry III turned to his Huguenot brother-in-law, Henry of Navarre for support.
The War of Three Henrys came to close in 1589, when Henry III's men assassinated Henry of Guise, and in retaliation, a fanatical Catholic Monk killed the king. By default, Henry Navarre, became the first Bourbon monarch of France. As a Protestant, however, he was not allowed to enter Paris. Therefore, to unify the country and end the insurgent wars, Henry IV (1589-1610) converted to Catholicism, and was said to have proclaimed-- "Paris is worth a Mass."
Henry IV leadership was deemed a politque, a ruler who put aside personal issues in order to preserve the nation. This notion is most presently seen in Henry IV's granting the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which permitted Protestants to maintain their own fortifications and armed men and to hold service and operate schools in some towns. In short, Protestants were allowed to worship privately anywhere. At the same time, however, Catholicism was recognized as the official religion of France with the Treaty of Vervin 1598, which would consequently end the hostilities with Spain and therefore put a close to the Religious struggles in France.
By 1550, Calvinism had become the dominate Protestant Religion in Europe, and as a result political struggle ensued as Calvinist sects grew in number. The first series of Religious Wars arose in France following the death of Henry II (1547-1559). The long standing wars between the Habsburg and Valois came to a close with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, which came about with the marriage between Henry II's daughter Elizabeth and Philip II of Spain. To celebrate the marriage, a tournament was held, in which Henry II accidentally was lanced by a javelin, leaving behind three young sons a Medici widow to rule the kingdom. Catherine Medici faced two strands of insurgent nobility: the extreme Catholic League led by the Guise family, and two strong Calvinst-Huguenot families--the Montmorency-Chatillon and Bourbons.
One by one, the Valois sons (Francis II: 1559-1560, Charles IX: 1560-1574, and Henry III: 1574-1589) took the throne and died. In an attempt to reconcile the conflict, the king's sister, Margaret was married to Henry of Navarre, but on the night of the wedding, August 24, 1572, several thousand Protestants were murdered in Paris and the countryside--the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which stimulated dissension. In 1574, when the last Valois son, Henry III became king the Religious Wars in France reached a head. At this time, the Duke of Guise, Henry controlled the Catholic League in Europe and was graciously supported by Philip II of Spain. By 1580, Henry III with the threat of Spain interfering in France, Henry III turned to his Huguenot brother-in-law, Henry of Navarre for support.
The War of Three Henrys came to close in 1589, when Henry III's men assassinated Henry of Guise, and in retaliation, a fanatical Catholic Monk killed the king. By default, Henry Navarre, became the first Bourbon monarch of France. As a Protestant, however, he was not allowed to enter Paris. Therefore, to unify the country and end the insurgent wars, Henry IV (1589-1610) converted to Catholicism, and was said to have proclaimed-- "Paris is worth a Mass."
Henry IV leadership was deemed a politque, a ruler who put aside personal issues in order to preserve the nation. This notion is most presently seen in Henry IV's granting the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which permitted Protestants to maintain their own fortifications and armed men and to hold service and operate schools in some towns. In short, Protestants were allowed to worship privately anywhere. At the same time, however, Catholicism was recognized as the official religion of France with the Treaty of Vervin 1598, which would consequently end the hostilities with Spain and therefore put a close to the Religious struggles in France.
Unfortunately, Religious tensions were not just limited to France in the sixteenth century. The Netherlands was another area that saw incendiary revolt. In 1550, the Netherlands consisted of 17 provinces, each rather independent and quite influenced by Calvinism. As a result of Charles V's death in 1556, his son Philip II of Spain inherited the territory. Following the Council of Trent, two influential Calvinist aristocrats surfaced, the Count of Egmont (1522-1568) and the Prince of Orange, William of Nassau (1533-1584) and opposed the Catholic decrees. Both Egmont and William led the revolt against the Church and the Spanish Inquisition. In 1566, over 400 Catholic Churches were attacked and burned to the ground. As a result, Philip II sent the arrogant curmudgeon, the Duke of Alba to quell the rebellion.
Alba arrive with 10,000 Spanish troops in 1567 and set up a church court know as the Council of Troubles (nicknamed the "Council of Blood") and executed many prominent nobles. In addition, he also seized property, which belong to Calvinist aristocrats and applied strict new taxes. At one point the Dutch broke dams and flooded their countryside to drive back the Spanish. Under the leadership of William of Orange, the Dutch freed the Netherlands from Spain in the North. The provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht followed Calvinist theology and declared the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1576, due to his grave unpopularity Duke of Alba was ousted from the Netherlands and replaced with the Duke of Parma, who managed to win back the 10 Southern provinces to Catholicism.
Despite the success of Parma in the Southern Netherlands, Philip II insisted that William of Orange be brought to justice. He placed a bounty of $25,000 crowns on his head. Between 1580-1584, William of Orange won over the wealthy provinces of Flanders and Brabant, which infuriated Philip II all the more. In hearing of the bounty on William's head, a radical French Catholic named Balthasar Gerard hunted down William and successful killed the famed ruler. The success of Protestants in the Northern provinces would prove to be lasting.
Following the death of William of Orange, Queen Elizabeth I of England (1558-1603), issued the Treaty of Nonsuch 1585, ensuring aid and protection to any Protestant country who needed it. Elizabeth, who had early in her career dealt with a torn Parliament and divided country, wished to be a politque and put England first. She shrewdly made concessions on both sides, by keeping a lot of the episcopal structure and adopted many of the Protestant doctrine in to the still nascent Church of England. In maintaining this even-keeled policy, Elizabeth was greatly opposed by Philip II, who proving to be the Catholic paterfamilias in Europe.
In 1587, Elizabeth had her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, executed along with several other English conspirators for the Babington Plot. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, held a claim through her mother's side to the English throne. As a result of her extreme Catholicism, Philip II supported the attempted assassination of Elizabeth, and the Babington Plot was formed. However, Sir Francis Walsingham uncovered the plot and Mary was brought to trial for treason. In reaction to Mary's execution and the Dutch success in Northern Netherlands, Philip II launched the Spanish Armada.
Philip's plan in the Armada was to have 130 Spanish ships carrying 25,000 soldiers from the Netherlands across the Channel to attack England. Much to Philip's chagrin, the smaller English clipper ships infiltrated the Spanish vessels and captured victory. The defeat of the Armada would assure Protestantism, independence, and freedom of the seas for the English and the Dutch.
Alba arrive with 10,000 Spanish troops in 1567 and set up a church court know as the Council of Troubles (nicknamed the "Council of Blood") and executed many prominent nobles. In addition, he also seized property, which belong to Calvinist aristocrats and applied strict new taxes. At one point the Dutch broke dams and flooded their countryside to drive back the Spanish. Under the leadership of William of Orange, the Dutch freed the Netherlands from Spain in the North. The provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht followed Calvinist theology and declared the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1576, due to his grave unpopularity Duke of Alba was ousted from the Netherlands and replaced with the Duke of Parma, who managed to win back the 10 Southern provinces to Catholicism.
Despite the success of Parma in the Southern Netherlands, Philip II insisted that William of Orange be brought to justice. He placed a bounty of $25,000 crowns on his head. Between 1580-1584, William of Orange won over the wealthy provinces of Flanders and Brabant, which infuriated Philip II all the more. In hearing of the bounty on William's head, a radical French Catholic named Balthasar Gerard hunted down William and successful killed the famed ruler. The success of Protestants in the Northern provinces would prove to be lasting.
Following the death of William of Orange, Queen Elizabeth I of England (1558-1603), issued the Treaty of Nonsuch 1585, ensuring aid and protection to any Protestant country who needed it. Elizabeth, who had early in her career dealt with a torn Parliament and divided country, wished to be a politque and put England first. She shrewdly made concessions on both sides, by keeping a lot of the episcopal structure and adopted many of the Protestant doctrine in to the still nascent Church of England. In maintaining this even-keeled policy, Elizabeth was greatly opposed by Philip II, who proving to be the Catholic paterfamilias in Europe.
In 1587, Elizabeth had her cousin, Mary Queen of Scots, executed along with several other English conspirators for the Babington Plot. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, held a claim through her mother's side to the English throne. As a result of her extreme Catholicism, Philip II supported the attempted assassination of Elizabeth, and the Babington Plot was formed. However, Sir Francis Walsingham uncovered the plot and Mary was brought to trial for treason. In reaction to Mary's execution and the Dutch success in Northern Netherlands, Philip II launched the Spanish Armada.
Philip's plan in the Armada was to have 130 Spanish ships carrying 25,000 soldiers from the Netherlands across the Channel to attack England. Much to Philip's chagrin, the smaller English clipper ships infiltrated the Spanish vessels and captured victory. The defeat of the Armada would assure Protestantism, independence, and freedom of the seas for the English and the Dutch.
The Thirty Years' War 1618-1648 were the last and most destructive Wars of Religion. Unlike the rest of Europe, the German states had no clear religious majority. Of the some 300 semiautonomous states, some were Catholic, others were Lutheran, and a few were Calvinist. The German states were in decline before 1600, the economy was suffering and the Dutch successful blocked many of the rivers.
There were four distinct phases of the Thirty Years' War (Bohemian 1618-1625, Danish 1625-1629, Swedish 1630-1635, Swedish-French 1635-1648) each with its own agenda and reason for fighting. The war itself arose out of the political resistance from Emperor Ferdinand II's opposition to the Calvinist Elector of the Palatinate, Frederik V. At first, it would appear as if the war was charged for religious reasons, but as it passed on from phase to phase, it would appear to be more of a political agenda in the various leaders.
The political angle is most presently seen in the role of the French, especially during the final phase of the war. The unctuous Cardinal Richelieu of France, sided with the Protestants to weaken the Catholic Habsburg's. This type of political jockeying, which is rooted in the Renaissance individualism is what will eventually define the Modern State in Europe. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war was a totally secular document. Granting each German state independence and religious freedom. Dutch independence was likewise recognized and the Western Europe rose quite triumphantly. Consequently, Eastern Europe (most of the Holy Roman Empire) sank in to depression, class division, and general chaos.
As we move into the next unit, The Age of Absolutism, the question of what role the government should play became seemingly important. What you see in this week's reading is two competitive forms of government Constitutionalism and Absolutism. Be able to delineate between these two governmental forms of monarchy.
There were four distinct phases of the Thirty Years' War (Bohemian 1618-1625, Danish 1625-1629, Swedish 1630-1635, Swedish-French 1635-1648) each with its own agenda and reason for fighting. The war itself arose out of the political resistance from Emperor Ferdinand II's opposition to the Calvinist Elector of the Palatinate, Frederik V. At first, it would appear as if the war was charged for religious reasons, but as it passed on from phase to phase, it would appear to be more of a political agenda in the various leaders.
The political angle is most presently seen in the role of the French, especially during the final phase of the war. The unctuous Cardinal Richelieu of France, sided with the Protestants to weaken the Catholic Habsburg's. This type of political jockeying, which is rooted in the Renaissance individualism is what will eventually define the Modern State in Europe. The Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war was a totally secular document. Granting each German state independence and religious freedom. Dutch independence was likewise recognized and the Western Europe rose quite triumphantly. Consequently, Eastern Europe (most of the Holy Roman Empire) sank in to depression, class division, and general chaos.
As we move into the next unit, The Age of Absolutism, the question of what role the government should play became seemingly important. What you see in this week's reading is two competitive forms of government Constitutionalism and Absolutism. Be able to delineate between these two governmental forms of monarchy.
world-civilization-week-7.ppt |