Unfortunately for the Catholic Church the Reformation did not end with Luther's Stand. In fact, the Reformation not only grew in the mid-sixteenth century, but it also would define permanent divisions in Christendom that will prove to be important factors for the next 200 years. As was discussed in the previous unit, Luther opened the door to the Church's deep seeded issues, and set the Reformation aflame in the West. Although the Radical Reformers that sprung up immediately after Luther's success generally waned by the 1530s, the movements such as Calvinism and Anglicanism flourished in the 1550s. Despite the success of these more powerful "reformers" in the mid-fifteenth century, the Catholic Church was finally able to put forth a reform movement of their own, which sought to repair some of the damages that were addressed at the onslaught of this religious schism. So, what exactly did the Reformation change? Was it just about religion? Or issues with the Church? Or is there something more to the Reformation? In order to answer these questions, let's take a look at how the Reformation proceeded following the Lutheran Revolt.
For a variety of reasons, it can be argued that John Calvin (1509-1564) was the most important reformer during this miraculous epoch. His candid theology transformed the Christian faith into an elitist system that predicated a systematic, as well as stringent doctrine. Calvin believed strongly in the Sovereignty of God, which saw God's dominance over all creation and humanity. According to Calvin, the individual was responsible to reorder society according to God's plan. Moreover, Calvin affirmed that individuals were predestined to this life of saving grace, and he stressed that only a select few were chosen by God.
Calvin began his revolt as early as 1527, but it would take nearly 15 years before he received support in the Swiss city of Geneva. By 1540, Calvin had transformed Geneva into a "city on a hill" a new type of Jerusalem, where reformers could seek asylum from persecution. In his magna opus, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote ad nauseam about the revelation of Christ and the importance of moral dominance in society. As he was setting up his new Church in Geneva, he restricted the Church's organization, which proved to be much more radical than the Lutheran transformation of the Christian faith. Faith, Calvin thought, did not sit idly in the mind, but conformed one's every action to God's Law. The "elect" should live in a manifestly God-pleasing way.
As one can see, the notion of Calvin's theology of the elect can be easily transferred to the rise of the individual in society. If one did not need to be tethered to the structure of the Church in order to receive salvation, then one could also rise out of the chains of society and be something more promising. Of course this idea will be further connected to the Spirit of Capitalism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as was so famously put into forth by the Economic Historian Max Weber.
That notwithstanding, by 1555 the divisions in Christendom were irreparable. It was not just the success of the Lutheran Stand, and Calvin's extremely popular "City of Elect" that brought about these more permanent divisions. In the 1530s, Luther's message began to seep its way into the north. Both Denmark and Sweden converted to Lutheranism in the 1530s, which gave the Lutheran faith a stronghold in the north. In England too did the Reformation begin to take root, as a result of the famous "King's Affair."
For a variety of reasons, it can be argued that John Calvin (1509-1564) was the most important reformer during this miraculous epoch. His candid theology transformed the Christian faith into an elitist system that predicated a systematic, as well as stringent doctrine. Calvin believed strongly in the Sovereignty of God, which saw God's dominance over all creation and humanity. According to Calvin, the individual was responsible to reorder society according to God's plan. Moreover, Calvin affirmed that individuals were predestined to this life of saving grace, and he stressed that only a select few were chosen by God.
Calvin began his revolt as early as 1527, but it would take nearly 15 years before he received support in the Swiss city of Geneva. By 1540, Calvin had transformed Geneva into a "city on a hill" a new type of Jerusalem, where reformers could seek asylum from persecution. In his magna opus, The Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote ad nauseam about the revelation of Christ and the importance of moral dominance in society. As he was setting up his new Church in Geneva, he restricted the Church's organization, which proved to be much more radical than the Lutheran transformation of the Christian faith. Faith, Calvin thought, did not sit idly in the mind, but conformed one's every action to God's Law. The "elect" should live in a manifestly God-pleasing way.
As one can see, the notion of Calvin's theology of the elect can be easily transferred to the rise of the individual in society. If one did not need to be tethered to the structure of the Church in order to receive salvation, then one could also rise out of the chains of society and be something more promising. Of course this idea will be further connected to the Spirit of Capitalism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as was so famously put into forth by the Economic Historian Max Weber.
That notwithstanding, by 1555 the divisions in Christendom were irreparable. It was not just the success of the Lutheran Stand, and Calvin's extremely popular "City of Elect" that brought about these more permanent divisions. In the 1530s, Luther's message began to seep its way into the north. Both Denmark and Sweden converted to Lutheranism in the 1530s, which gave the Lutheran faith a stronghold in the north. In England too did the Reformation begin to take root, as a result of the famous "King's Affair."
In many ways, England had a well-earned reputation for maintaining the rights of the crown against the pope. Moreover, England had witness several movements towards reform as early as the late thirteenth century and early fourteenth centuries. William of Ockham (1288-1347) was the first to challenge the need to rational faith. In Ockham's view, faith should be enough to carry one home to heaven. A little later, John Wycliff (1320-1384) emerged preaching in the vernacular and moving toward the concept of a more modern faith. By the time King Henry VIII had launched his campaign against Pope Clement VII , the ideas of Luther had spread to the Parliament and other spheres of influence in England.
Even though, England was ripe for religious reform, it was not a religious revival that catapulted this change, but rather a political matter. In 1527, Henry VIII had grown tired of waiting for his wife Catherine of Aragon to produce a male heir. Henry was infatuated with a lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn, and moreover he was convinced that his marriage to Catherine was not seen favorably in the eyes of God, since Catherine of Aragon was first married to Henry's older brother Arthur. It was unlawful, according to the Bible for one to marry his brother's wife, but since Arthur died before he was crowned king, and Henry VII wished to keep the political alliance in tact with Spain, they received special dispensation from the pope so he could marry Catherine.
In order to pursue Anne Boylen, who was much younger than Catherine of Aragon, Henry petition the pope for an annulment, so he could legally divorce Catherine and marry Anne. Pope Clement VII, however, said "NO" and it was not because as some think for moral or religious reasons. The Pope most likely said no to Henry because his wife, Catherine of Aragon, was the Aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and Clement VII did not want to war with the strongest Empire in the West. To that end, the petulant Henry dismissed his Cardinal, and appointed Thomas Cramner to establish a new church, which he called the Anglican Church.
It is important to point out that since the English Reformation began solely for political reasons, Henry VIII did not change anything substantial to religion. In many ways, the Anglican Church was Catholic without a Pope. Henry refused to let priests marry, he reaffirmed the Catholic belief in transubstantiation and denied the Eucharistic Cup to the laity. In addition, Henry declared that celibate vows were inviolable, continued private mass, as well as auricular confession. While the English Reformers, who were sympathetic to the Lutheran cause, did not approve of the theology or the doctrine of this new 'reformed' religion, they did welcome the English Reformation with open arms. To these reformers initial change was the like the camel's nose that made its way under the tent. Breaking away from the Church was the first step, once this change was promulgated by the king, then they could work on reforming the religious aspects.
Even though, England was ripe for religious reform, it was not a religious revival that catapulted this change, but rather a political matter. In 1527, Henry VIII had grown tired of waiting for his wife Catherine of Aragon to produce a male heir. Henry was infatuated with a lady-in-waiting, Anne Boleyn, and moreover he was convinced that his marriage to Catherine was not seen favorably in the eyes of God, since Catherine of Aragon was first married to Henry's older brother Arthur. It was unlawful, according to the Bible for one to marry his brother's wife, but since Arthur died before he was crowned king, and Henry VII wished to keep the political alliance in tact with Spain, they received special dispensation from the pope so he could marry Catherine.
In order to pursue Anne Boylen, who was much younger than Catherine of Aragon, Henry petition the pope for an annulment, so he could legally divorce Catherine and marry Anne. Pope Clement VII, however, said "NO" and it was not because as some think for moral or religious reasons. The Pope most likely said no to Henry because his wife, Catherine of Aragon, was the Aunt of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, and Clement VII did not want to war with the strongest Empire in the West. To that end, the petulant Henry dismissed his Cardinal, and appointed Thomas Cramner to establish a new church, which he called the Anglican Church.
It is important to point out that since the English Reformation began solely for political reasons, Henry VIII did not change anything substantial to religion. In many ways, the Anglican Church was Catholic without a Pope. Henry refused to let priests marry, he reaffirmed the Catholic belief in transubstantiation and denied the Eucharistic Cup to the laity. In addition, Henry declared that celibate vows were inviolable, continued private mass, as well as auricular confession. While the English Reformers, who were sympathetic to the Lutheran cause, did not approve of the theology or the doctrine of this new 'reformed' religion, they did welcome the English Reformation with open arms. To these reformers initial change was the like the camel's nose that made its way under the tent. Breaking away from the Church was the first step, once this change was promulgated by the king, then they could work on reforming the religious aspects.
One of the final steps in the Reformation era was the Catholic-Counter Reformation. Even before Luther posted his famous 95 Theses, the Church recognized the corruption of the Late Medieval System. In past the Church reformed through councils, so at the onslaught of the Protestant Movement, the Church had called the Fifth Latern Council (1513-1517). During this council the keynote speaker said: "men are to be changed by, not to change, religion." Although this was a generally accepted belief, as we have seen, the problems of the Late Medieval Church went beyond words and councils.
Another prominent way that the Church kept heresies at bay was through the missionary work of Religious Orders. The Benedictines, Franciscans, and Dominicans were proven spiritual warriors in the past combating the various schismatic teachings during the bulk of the Middle Ages. However, the early Reformers had missionary type candor, and to that end, the Church was in need of some new orders. There were a variety of religious groups that arose during the Reformation, but two groups that stand out were the Carmelites and Jesuits.
The Carmelites were Spanish Mystics who formed around the 1570s and spearheaded the counter attack against the reformers. Consequently, they brought a lot of people back to the Catholic faith. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) was foremost in this religious group. She discussed quite poignantly in her work, The Interior Castle, how a Christian moves towards God through prayer and contemplation. Another important Carmelite, John of the Cross (1542-1591) also wrote extensively on the Christian's spiritual journey and the mystical reunion with God. In the narrative poem, "Dark Night of the Soul" he discussed how a soul travels through the night. Through the recognition of darkness the soul discovers light, which represents God. According to John of the Cross, we must remove the darkness (worldly possessions and hardships) in order to see the perfection of God.
A former Spanish Courtier and Caballero, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) organized the Order of the Society of Jesus or Jesuits in the 1530s. During a battle in 1521, Ignatius was wounded, and while he was convalescing, he read about Christian philosophers and saints. From this education, he developed the role of a strong mental capacity to resist pain and later associated it with resisting evil and sin. His ideas were laid out in his Spiritual Exercises, where he argued that even if the Bible did not exist there was still spirit, and because of this truth we needed to give our total obedience to the church. After 1540, the Jesuits began to distinguish themselves as a teaching order and also worked as Catholic missionaries in places where Lutheranism had made large inroads, such as Poland.
The centerpiece of the Catholic Reformation, however, was the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Unlike the medieval conciliar movement, which sought to place the papacy under the control of a Church Council, the Council of Trent was dominated by the papacy, and in turn, enhanced its power. The council took steps to address some of the issues that had sparked the Reformation, including placing limits on the selling of church offices. Recognizing that poorly educated clergy were a major problem, the Council mandated that a seminary for the education of the clergy should be established in every diocese. The Council of Trent refused to concede any point of theology or doctrine to the Protestants. Instead they emphatically endorsed the traditional teachings of Thomas Aquinas on such matters as the sacraments, the role of priests, the belief that salvation comes from faith as well as works, and that the source for this faith was the Bible and the traditions of the Church.
The establishment of the new Religious Orders coupled with the strength of the Council of Trent, witnessed the Catholic faith successfully returning over 65,000 reformers to their sheepfold. In many ways, the changes made by the Protestants did not have lasting success. Clerical Marriage and the use of the vernacular for example, were rejected by many clerics, who had converted in the early stages of the Reformation. Towards this end, one begins to question what exactly did the Reformation accomplish. Despite the resurgence of Catholicism in the late sixteenth century, it hard to say that Reformation was not an important movement, because there were significant changes made. The biggest accomplishment of the Reformation was the rise of the individual in society. This individualism was established by stressing the need to discover God through personal faith and reading the Bible on one's own. This concept of self-discovery, which was first introduced during the Renaissance will prove to be a paramount aspect for the incipient Scientific Revolution.
Next week look for connections in the issues that were discussed during the Reformation in the Age of Religious Wars. In short be able to assess if the various wars throughout Europe 1550-1650 were really about religion or something else, such as politics? How does the concept of the individual in faith apply to the development of the state in the seventeenth century?
Another prominent way that the Church kept heresies at bay was through the missionary work of Religious Orders. The Benedictines, Franciscans, and Dominicans were proven spiritual warriors in the past combating the various schismatic teachings during the bulk of the Middle Ages. However, the early Reformers had missionary type candor, and to that end, the Church was in need of some new orders. There were a variety of religious groups that arose during the Reformation, but two groups that stand out were the Carmelites and Jesuits.
The Carmelites were Spanish Mystics who formed around the 1570s and spearheaded the counter attack against the reformers. Consequently, they brought a lot of people back to the Catholic faith. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) was foremost in this religious group. She discussed quite poignantly in her work, The Interior Castle, how a Christian moves towards God through prayer and contemplation. Another important Carmelite, John of the Cross (1542-1591) also wrote extensively on the Christian's spiritual journey and the mystical reunion with God. In the narrative poem, "Dark Night of the Soul" he discussed how a soul travels through the night. Through the recognition of darkness the soul discovers light, which represents God. According to John of the Cross, we must remove the darkness (worldly possessions and hardships) in order to see the perfection of God.
A former Spanish Courtier and Caballero, Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556) organized the Order of the Society of Jesus or Jesuits in the 1530s. During a battle in 1521, Ignatius was wounded, and while he was convalescing, he read about Christian philosophers and saints. From this education, he developed the role of a strong mental capacity to resist pain and later associated it with resisting evil and sin. His ideas were laid out in his Spiritual Exercises, where he argued that even if the Bible did not exist there was still spirit, and because of this truth we needed to give our total obedience to the church. After 1540, the Jesuits began to distinguish themselves as a teaching order and also worked as Catholic missionaries in places where Lutheranism had made large inroads, such as Poland.
The centerpiece of the Catholic Reformation, however, was the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Unlike the medieval conciliar movement, which sought to place the papacy under the control of a Church Council, the Council of Trent was dominated by the papacy, and in turn, enhanced its power. The council took steps to address some of the issues that had sparked the Reformation, including placing limits on the selling of church offices. Recognizing that poorly educated clergy were a major problem, the Council mandated that a seminary for the education of the clergy should be established in every diocese. The Council of Trent refused to concede any point of theology or doctrine to the Protestants. Instead they emphatically endorsed the traditional teachings of Thomas Aquinas on such matters as the sacraments, the role of priests, the belief that salvation comes from faith as well as works, and that the source for this faith was the Bible and the traditions of the Church.
The establishment of the new Religious Orders coupled with the strength of the Council of Trent, witnessed the Catholic faith successfully returning over 65,000 reformers to their sheepfold. In many ways, the changes made by the Protestants did not have lasting success. Clerical Marriage and the use of the vernacular for example, were rejected by many clerics, who had converted in the early stages of the Reformation. Towards this end, one begins to question what exactly did the Reformation accomplish. Despite the resurgence of Catholicism in the late sixteenth century, it hard to say that Reformation was not an important movement, because there were significant changes made. The biggest accomplishment of the Reformation was the rise of the individual in society. This individualism was established by stressing the need to discover God through personal faith and reading the Bible on one's own. This concept of self-discovery, which was first introduced during the Renaissance will prove to be a paramount aspect for the incipient Scientific Revolution.
Next week look for connections in the issues that were discussed during the Reformation in the Age of Religious Wars. In short be able to assess if the various wars throughout Europe 1550-1650 were really about religion or something else, such as politics? How does the concept of the individual in faith apply to the development of the state in the seventeenth century?
world-civilization-week-5-6.ppt |